A fundamental obstacle to vaccine development in schistosomiasis mansoni is a lack of understanding of what type of an immune response should be invoked. We have addressed this central issue by using the radiation-attenuated cercariae vaccine in mice genetically engineered to exhibit highly polarized type 1 (IL-10/IL-4-deficient) or type 2 (IL-10/IL-12-deficient) cytokine and Ab phenotypes. Our data show that while significant differences in immunity exist after a single vaccination with irradiated cercariae in double cytokine-deficient vs wild-type mice, these differences disappear after two vaccinations. The most important finding of these studies, however, was revealed in vaccinated IL-10-deficient mice. These mice developed a mixed and elevated type 1-and type 2-associated immune response and developed anti-schistosome immunity at levels equal to or better than those in wild-type mice. This immunity in IL-10-deficient mice correlated with higher parasite-specific Ab titers, greater proliferative capacity of lymphocytes, increased frequency of IFN-γ-and IL-4-secreting cells, elevated perivascular/peribronchial inflammatory responses in the lung, and greater in vitro schistosomulacidal capacity of parasite Ag-elicited cells. These results suggest that optimal vaccine-induced immunity against schistosomes is linked not to the development of a highly polarized response, but, rather, to the induction of both type 1-and type 2-associated immune responses.